The Battle of Malplaquet, fought on September 11th, 1709, was the bloodiest and last great victory of John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, during the war of the Spanish succession.
Background
The winter of 1708-1709 found France in dire straits. The government was bankrupt, and the famine, caused both by a hard winter, and by the blockade of the British Navy, led to widespread starvation. Louis XIV of France began peace talks with the allied nations of the “Grand Alliance” with whom he was fighting in the war of the Spanish succession. He offered considerable concessions, including that the King of Spain should be the Hapsburg candidate, Archduke Charles, rather than his grandson, Philip V, the primary reason for the War of the Spanish succession in the first place. But the allies had become arrogant in their military successes thus far, particularly the English and Dutch, and played hardball, refusing to back down from their stringent and extremely harsh demands, despite the urging of John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, to do so. Finding their terms too humiliating to accept, Louis XIV stopped negotiations, and both sides prepped for further war. Louis XIV now made a speech to his people, informing them that he had offered to make peace, but that the Allies had demanded terms which compromised the national security of France. Appealing to their patriotism, he urged them to flock to his banner and defend the honor and safety of France. The speech had its effect, and within a few months, Marshal Villars, the commanding general of the French army, had transformed his small and beaten host, into a formidable force of 110,000 men by the start of spring, an army nearly equal in size to that of the Allies.[1]

Marshal Villars
The Marshal deployed his army between Bethune and Douai, in an extremely strong and entrenched position. Finding his position too strong to attack, when he advanced on June 23rd, Marlborough, commander of the Army of the Grand Alliance, feinted as if he was about to attack, an action which induced Villars to call up as many men as he could from the garrisons, roundabout as reinforcements. Marlborough then struck at the weakened garrison at Tournai. The siege began on June 24th, and though the French garrison was small, Tournai was heavily fortified, and did not fall until September 3rd. The obstinate defense cost Marlborough’s army 5,000 men. During the whole length of the siege, Marshal Villars remained inactive with his army, instead constructing what he hoped would be an impregnable line of defense to block any further Allied gains. The day that Tournai fell, Marlborough sent off a subordinate, the Prince of Hesse Cassel, with the advance guard of the army to take on quickly what Marlborough believed should be the next target, the city of Mons, the only fortress now lying in the Allies path straight to the French capital. The Prince marched rapidly, clearing 49 miles in 56 hours, and reached the Haine river, beyond the city of Mons, and broached the French lines at a place they altogether unexpected to be attacked, and thus the formidable line of defense which Villars had been constructing these past months was a one stroke rendered null.
The prince now invested Mons from the rear, and the rest of the Allied army rapidly followed. Marlborough planted his headquarters south of that place and cut it off from the rest of France.

John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough
The capitulation of Tournai had taken King Louis by surprise. Believing that the garrison would hold out until October and consume the entirety of the 1708 campaign season, he was entirely unprepared for the Allied attack on Mons. But he recognized the gravity of the situation, as Mons was the last remaining fortress standing between the Allies and Paris, and to prevent its reduction was an absolute imperative. Villars, who had previously been ordered not to hazard a battle, was now instructed to risk one to raise the siege.
Prelude to Battle
Villars immediately moved up his army, determined to fight a pitched battle, and advanced to within 10 miles of Mons, deploying his forces on a plateau intersected with streams and woods, a place of great natural strength, some two hundred feet above the plain of the Trouville. The slope was heavily wooded, and only two clearings afforded passage for the Allies to get up the slope and attack the French. Villars had chosen his ground very well. Leaving a detachment of Prince Eugene’s troops to watch Mons, Marlborough, Eugune, and the rest of the army advanced to meet the enemy, bivouacking for the night five miles from the French position on the evening of the 7th of September.

Prince Eugene of Savoy
The morning of the 8th, a council of war was held in the Allied camp. Marlborough and Prince Eugune of Savoy urged that an immediate attack be made at once, but the Dutch deputies, as they had done before, urged retirement in the face of the strong natural position held by the French. A compromise was thus reached. Instead of retiring as the Dutch wanted, it was decided to continue the siege of Mons, and to attack Villars in two days if he did not attack himself. On the other hand, to appease the Dutch, it was resolved to wait upon the return St. Ghilsain, which commanded a passage on the Haine, was taken, and the troops involved in this enterprise, returned to the army, along with 26 battalions on the march from Tournai. This would buy the Allies some extra manpower, but they would be dearly purchased.
Rather than attacking, Villars instead used the extra two days afforded him, to strengthen his position, skillfully and vigorously entrenching and fortifying his army, which was arranged in a concave semicircle, his artillery commanding a position that would enable them to enfilade on all sides the plain of Malplaquet. This semicircle was reinforced by wooden redoubts, palisades, abattis, and entrenchments. The two trouees, or openings through the heavily wooded slopes, were enfiladed by crisscrossing batteries of French guns. Near the center of the field, a battery of 20 French guns was placed, and the remainder placed along the fieldworks along the lines. Half the French army labored to construct these fortifications and breastworks while the other half stood to arms, during September 9th and 10th. By the night of the 10th, the French position was deemed well nigh impregnable.

Marshal Boufflers
The French received another boost with the arrival of Marshal Boufflers, a highly skilled French officer, who had led the defense of the city of Lille. It had been an unsuccessful defense, but not from any fault of his own, and his arrival in the French camp brought forth French cheers. So loud was the cheering that the sounds reached the Allied camp and warned the Allied officers so that their men stood to arms awaiting attack. It did not come. Boufflers’ had plenty of experience defending fortifications, so Villars’ battle plan to act on the defensive was right up the old man’s alley. Boufflers came as soon as he heard that a battle was imminent. Though he outranked Villars, Boufflers had not come to fight, but rather, to serve under Villars as a volunteer; such was his eagerness to fight in the service and glory of France.
Marlborough and Eugune, while awaiting the arrival of the reinforcements, repeatedly reconnoitered the French position and were anxiously aware of its growing strength. Hence, they resolved to demonstrate in the enemy’s rear even as they attacked him in front. To accomplish this, the rear guard of nineteen battalions and ten squadrons, under General Withers, coming up from Tournai, was given orders not to join the main body of the army, but instead, to cross the Haine at St. Ghislain, and attack the extreme left of the French position at the La Folie Farm, when the battle had begun to the front. Marlborough and Eugune made the dispositions for the main attack. Baron Schulemberg would attack the left flank of the entrenchments in the wood of Taisniere, with forty of Eugune’s battalions, and as many cannons. Count Lottum would was to attack the right flank of the wood with 22 battalions, supported by the same number of squadrons. The rest of the army would attack along the whole line to distract the enemy and to support the attack, but the primary blow would be administered by Eugune’s attack in the Taisnierre woods.
Composition of the Two Armies
The eve of battle found the two opposing armies nearly equal in strength. Marshal Villars had 95,000 men in position, in no less than 130 battalions and 160 squadrons. 65,000 of his men were infantry and 26,000 cavalry: the rest artillerymen, to man his 80 pieces of cannon. His army had the advantage of all belonging to one nation, speaking the same language, and having a united aim.
This was in contrast to the army of the Grand Alliance, which was a multinational and multi-ethnic motley array. The Allied army comprised 93,000 men, in 139 battalions and 252 squadrons. Only in artillery did they slightly outnumber the French, having 105 guns, to the French’s 80.
Both armies were confident of victory, the Allied, because they had prevailed in an unbroken series of victories thus far, and under their skillful generals Eugune and Marlborough, had never known defeat, and the French because they were commanded by their best and most popular officers, and regarded their breastworks and entrenchments as impregnable.
Preparations for Battle
Divine services were held at three in the morning on the 11th, in every regiment and the soldiers listened attentively and solemnly, as did Marlborough. The Enlightenment had not yet reared its ugly head in European history, though history was on its eve, and Christendom and its rituals were still an active part of national and military life. A thick fog overfell the field as the troops marched out to their appointed stations to begin their attack upon the French. Marlborough supervised these dispositions, as well as the placing of 40 guns in a grand battery in the center to take the French left under fire, and 28 more to take on the French right.[2]
The French stood to their arms immediately upon getting wind of what was going on. All the working parties, which had even until this moment, been working on their fortifications stopped and fell into rank. Marshal Villars rode along the length of his line to the cheers of his troops and gave Marshal Boufflers command of the right wing of the line, while Villars took command of the left.
Beginning of the Battle
The fog lifted at 7:30 am, and as soon as the artillerists could see well enough to shoot, the artillery of both sides began banging away with great vigor. The Allied troops could scarcely see the French, hidden by their breastworks, and sarcastically quipped to one another, “We are again about to make war on moles.”[3] Prince Eugune took command on the right, while Marlborough would direct the movements against the center and left of the French line.[4]
Marlborough directed his men forward in echelon, the right in front, to attack the center and left of the French line.
The Prince of Orange led thirty battalions and twenty squadrons, mainly Dutchman against the French right. They halted just before cannon range, drawing up in several lines, in accordance with orders while Lottum’s men moved forwards, unmindful of the heavy fire they were under, and wheeling to the right, formed three lines, to attack the Taisniere woods from the right. At the same time, Schulemberg, with his men, advanced to the left of Lottum to attack the Taisniere Woods from the left. Prince Eugune accompanied Schulemberg’s men.
At nine in the morning, after a short pause in the cannonading, a battery in the Allied center fired the signal to begin the attack.
Attack on the Left
Schulemberg’s Austrians did not have an easy time of it, having to traverse the streams, brushwood, and other obstacles of the rough ground over which they had to pass to reach the French position. But despite the challenges of the terrain, they were at least spared any French opposition. That is, until they had arrived to within 50 paces of the French breastworks, whereupon the French steadied their muskets upon the edge of the parapets,[5] and poured a terrific volley into their midst, which caused them to recoil more than two hundred yards, until Prince Eugune rallied them from the front, bravely exposing him to the fire of the enemy to do so, and led them to the charge yet again. While this was going on, three battalions, brought up from the blockade of Mons, slipped unobserved into the southeastern end of the woods of Taisniere, and made some progress, before three battalions of French troops met them, and were soon hotly engaging them.
Marlborough, meanwhile, accompanied Count Lottum’s men as they attacked, leading on D’Aubergne’s cavalry in support. The French Du Roi brigade was manning the opposite works, and they subjected Lottum’s men to a heavy fire as they crossed the ravine and morass which separated them from the French works. Reaching the foot of the entrenchment, they rushed with fixed bayonets against it. Their determination to take them hardened by the loss they had sustained. Their resolve carried them over the parapet to the summit, as the troops swarmed over the works, carrying the redoubt amid cheers at the point of the bayonet. But Villars, who was directly in rear, reacted quickly, and personally led a brigade in a counterattack, which bayoneted the attackers from the position and cleared it.
But Marlborough, at the head of D’Auvergne’s 3,000 cavalrymen, now led them in a furious charge into the entrenchments, while Lottum’s infantry again returned to the attack, this time in support. At this moment, the Duke of Argyle “ordered a British brigade of the second line to extend the left, and the whole renewed the charge.”[6] This brigade now found opposite an opening in the French works, but to get to it they had to wade through a nearly impassable swamp. While doing so, General Chenault, a subordinate of Villars drew twelve battalions from the second line of French entrenchments and sent them against this British brigade. Passing out of the entrenchments, the twelve battalions made ready to strike the left flank of the British brigade. But when Villars saw Marlborough and his staff, at the head of D’Auvergne’s cavalry, he realized that the cavalry would make mincemeat out of the twelve battalions if he did not recall them at once, and he quickly did so. The British brigade thus escaped annihilation, and the twelve French battalions a serious mauling.
While this fighting was going on, meanwhile, General Withers was silently and cautiously entering the woods near La Folie and making considerable progress. When the French discovered his movement, they made efforts to dislodge him, but it was too late, and he had penetrated too far into the French rear. The advance of General Withers’ corps now rendered the French advanced line of fieldworks untenable, and Villars withdrew his troops, the Frenchmen retiring through the trees to the second line of works in their rear, which they prepared to defend to the last man.
It was well that he did so, for the British brigade sent in by the Duke of Argyle, bringing up the left of Count Lottum’s advance, turned the right flank of the Du Roi brigade, and after heavy fighting, managed to enter the works, forcing the Du Roi brigade to fall back into the woods. Wilberforce records:
The brigades of Champagne and Piscardie, pressed by the double assault of Schulemberg on one side, and Count Lottum on the other, found a momentary asylum behind an abattis, and the Marine brigade, after a vigorous stand, was compelled to fall back through the wood.[7]
The French retreat from their advanced works was no rout. The French fell back stubbornly, contesting every tree, as they did so.
The Attack of the Prince of Orange
The Prince of Orange, whose orders bade him to wait half an hour before launching his attack, had been growing increasingly impatient. He could not bear to sit on his hands while the battle was raging so hotly on his left. When the half hour had finally expired, he resolved to move forwards, though orders from his superior, Marshal Tilly, had not yet arrived, and his troops would be unsupported. But the Prince of Orange was too impatient to wait any longer. The troops under his command were Scottish mercenaries in Dutch pay, under the command of the Marquis of Tullibardine, and Major General Hamilton, which brought up the left of his front, and Dutch troops, under the command of Dutch commanders Spaar and Oxenstiern, which brought up the right of his front, while the Prince of Hesse-Cassel, with 21 squadrons, brought up the reserve.
On the word to march, all the troops were instantly in motion, led by the Prince of Orange. Rushing to the attack, they closed the works under a terrible hail of musket balls and grapeshot. Oxenstiern was killed at the Prince of Orange’s side, as was, one by one, every member of his staff. His horse was now shot from shot from under him, but the Prince of Orange continued to lead his men on foot. As they passed a flanking battery of French artillery, the French gunners swept the whole front ranks away in a cloud of grapeshot. But the Highland Scots and the Dutch guards, undaunted by the terrific fire, pressed on, mounted the entrenchment and cleared it with the bayonet. But before they could consolidate their gain, Marshal Boufflers, leading here on the right, rallied his troops, brought up fresh French soldiers and led them in close order against the English and Dutch. As this new French counterattack slammed them in front, they were torn from the side by volleys of grapeshot from the French battery on their flank, and blasted from two directions, the English and Dutch could not stand. Slaughtered heavily, they fell back, leaving Spaar lying dead on the ground, and carrying off Hamilton, who had been severely wounded. Tullibardine died gallantly in the French entrenchments.

The Prince of Orange leads his Dutch troops in the attack.
The Prince of Orange, seeing his men falling back in disorder, grasped a flag and advanced alone to the top of the entrenchment. “Follow me, my friends!” He shouted, “Here is your post!” But his bravery and example were in vain. Boufflers’ second line of troops closed with the first, and the whole breastwork now bristled with a dense mass of muskets and bayonets, six ranks deep, pouring a terrible rolling fire down into the Allies. A long unbroken sheet of flame poured from the musket muzzles and heavy gun smoke rose from the French position. The Prince of Orange and what few troops had followed him fell back.
The Prince of Orange’s attack had failed, and he had lost 3,000 men killed and 6,000 wounded. The French troops now thought they saw an opportunity. Though Boufflers, nor any of his subordinates, had given them any such orders, the French soldiers of the Brigade of Navarre, sallied out of their entrenchments and charged the retiring Dutch and Scottish. In disorder, the Dutch were driven back over the heaps of corpses, and an advanced artillery battery fell into the hands of the French. They only rallied when the Prince of Hesse Cassel threw in his reserves to their support, driving back the French into their works after a brief struggle.
Further Progress of Schullenberg and Withers
Marlborough now received news of this state of affairs on the right, and with his staff, and Prince Eugune, hurried to this point. They passed numbers of wounded troops, whose wounds had just been bound and were hurrying to the front to return to the fight, even though they were struggling under the weight of their muskets.[8] The Prince of Orange was itching at the chance to attack again, and Marlborough and Eugune had to remind him that his operations were intended only as a feint, and that the main attack would actually come on the left, where much progress had already been made.[9]
Villars, meanwhile, was growing alarmed at the progress of General Withers in turning his extreme left flank. He summoned reinforcements from Boufflers, but the old general could spare none, having his hands completely full repulsing the attack of the Prince of Orange. Villars thus had no choice but to pull his needed reinforcements from the center of the French line instead. The selected reinforcements, including the Irish brigade, were some of his best troops. Charging into the wood of Taisniere upon the British and Prussians, they hurled them back through the trees, until the terrain broke up their formations, and blunted the effectiveness of the attack.
An officer now rode up to Marlborough and filled him in on this development. Marlborough instantly realized the advantage, which the weakening of the enemy’s center, had given him. He now directed Lord Orkney to advance his troops directly against the center, while Prince Eugune galloped off to the left.
Count Schullemberg’s men, had forced their way round the marsh and were pushing the French gradually back into the woods, where the fighting was obscured by the smoke and foliage. On the extreme left, Withers had resumed his advance, and it was freaking Villars out. Villars gathered up more troops from the center, including the Royal Regiment of Ireland, in French service, and led them in a bayonet charge upon Eugune and Withers’ troops. The allies met them with a destructive fire, but Eugune received a head wound, while attempting to rally the men. His attendants urged him to retire from the field so that the wound could be dressed, but Eugune was having none of it. “If I am fated to die here, to what purpose dress the wound?” He asked them. “If I survive, it will time enough in the morning.”[10] And with these words, he again moved to the head of the troops, his presence inspiring the soldiers, who followed him in the attack, even though the blood was spilling down over his shoulders.
At roughly the same time, Villars was also wounded. A musket ball felled his horse out from under him, and another slammed into his thigh above the knee. Unwilling to quit the field, and unable to remain on horseback, he was placed by his own wishes into a chair, so that he might direct the battle from it. But unfortunately for Villars the pain of his wound, and the blood loss was too much, and he soon passed out, and was carried off the field senseless. Command of the French army now devolved upon the shoulders of Marshal Boufflers. Eugune’s troops drove back the Royal Regiment of Ireland, and the other French units, pursuing the broken enemy.
Lord Orkney’s Decisive Attack Upon the French Center
Lord Orkney had been ordered by Marlborough to attack the French center. His British brigade advanced, followed by D’Auvergne’s cavalry, with thirty squadrons of Dutch cavalry in two lines, and by the British cavalry and the Prussian and Hanoverian cavalry under General Bulau, and followed last of all, by the Imperial Cavalry of the Holy Roman Empire, formed in columns.[11]

Final Stages of the Battle of Malaplaquet. British troops overrun the French entrenchments
The French entrenchments were not fully manned in the center, and Orkney’s infantry swept over the entrenchments and carried them, overpowering the the Bavarian and Cologne guards at their posts here. The cavalry followed right on the heels of the infantry, entered the entrenchments through several openings, and swarmed over the plain, riding down and cutting down fugitives. Marlborough wasted no time in securing his advantage. He at once ordered the grand battery of 40 cannons to be brought up at trot. Passing through the entrenchments in the center, they were wheeled both to the right and to the left, and the gunners began to blast both ends of the French line. The British troops began to turn the artillery in the works around and use them against their former owners as well. Behind the fleeing Frenc infantry in the center, were stationed dense masses of French cavalry. The British artillery, as well as the captured French pieces, began to blow grapeshot through the dense ranks of horsemen. Galled by the cannister, the French cavalry bore up gallantly and counterattacked at once, hoping to drive out the Allies before they had time to consolidate their hold on the entrenchments in the center. But they could not make little headway, their ranks constantly ripped by grapeshot, and were forced to retire, shattered by the Allied artillery.
Covering the French Retreat
The battle had now been won. The French position was no longer tenable, having been pierced in the center, with allied artillery firing into their rear, and their left flank turned. It was no longer possible to maintain his position, and Boufflers knew it. There was no other alternative but to retreat. Yet Boufflers handled the situation with tactical skill and shrewdness. Gathering 2,000 elite royal horse guards, he placed himself at their head. He then led them in a charge against the Allied cavalry that had penetrated the French center, who by now were much fatigued, in contrast to the fresh French cavalry, as they halted to reform their lines after passing through the French entrenchments. The allied cavalry was driven back and put to flight, in much disorder, despite the heroic efforts of Prince D’Auvergne’s squadrons.
The French cavalry fared much less successfully when they encountered Orkney’s infantry however. That commander had used the interim to post his troops on the entrenchments and from this position, they poured in a heavy and destructive fire from the parapets, which they occupied in reverse, and blew half of the French from their mounts to the plain. The remaining half fell back in retreat. Boufflers was not through, however. Gathering a large body of infantry that was still fresh he marched them to the left, and reforming his squadrons again, once more charged with his cavalry. But the allied artillery blasted the infantry, and they staggered under the galling fire, as Marlborough himself charged the French cavalry with the English horse, who repulsed them. The English cavalry now was attacked by Boufflers’ cavalry, which crashed through their first and second lines, and threw the third into confusion, but then Prince Eugune arrived on the scene with the Imperial cavalry and pitched into them so fiercely that they were driven back.
The French repeated their charge several times, but made no further headway, as the Allied cavalry held firm, and the fire of the infantry and artillery ripped the French horse up badly.
At the same time this was going on, the Prince of Orange and the Prince of Hesse-Cassel both, seeing that the entrenchments were weakly manned before them, attacked and carried the works in front of them. A tremendous shout rose up along the whole line, announcing that the whole end of the line had fallen into the hands of the Allies.
Boufflers’ desperate cavalry charges did have their effect of covering the withdrawal of the infantry, however. Forming his infantry into three bodies, along with the remains of his cavalry, he reluctantly ordered a general retreat to Bavai. Boufflers’ retreat was no rout. The retreat was conducted slowly and ably. The allies were too exhausted to pursue due to the heavy losses they had sustained, and the battle of Malplaquet came to an end.
Aftermath
Marlborough and Eugune praised the masterful retreat of Boufflers, whose army they could not pursue due to the exhaustion and heavy losses the allies had sustained. Indeed, the allies had suffered 20,000 casualties, while the French had suffered just under two thirds that at 14,000 casualties. The Allied victory had been great, but it had been dearly purchased. Boufflers’ retreat was so orderly and well executed that he was able to carry off most of his wounded. The Allies only picked up 500 unwounded prisoners, though they did capture about 3,000 wounded men. The allies captured 14 guns and 25 colors, while the French carried off 32 standards, principally Dutch.
The Allied victory here did keep the French army from raising the siege of Mons, which fell on October 20th. Boufflers did manage to quit the field with the greater part of his army, however, which remained to threaten the allies as a potent fighting force. The strategic effects of the battle were more significant than the tactical effects. With the allied army being badly mauled, the allies were shaken up sensibly enough to begin to become weary of the heavy bloodshed, and the French would go on to score several more victories in the last three years of the war of the Spanish succession that enabled them to negotiate more favorable peace terms, and result in a more honorable peace for France.
The gallant defense and bravery of the French troops has already been noted. Of the Allied, one of their French opponents wrote:
Eugune and Marlborough ought to be well satisfied with us on that day, since up to that time they had not met with a resistance worthy of them. They may now say with justice that nothing can stand before them; and indeed, what should be able to stay the rapid progress of those heroes, if an army of 100,000 men of the best troops, strongly posted between two woods, trebly entrenched and performing their duty as well as any brave men could do, were not able to stop them one day? Will you not then own with me that they surpass all the heroes of former ages?
It is not for nothing that John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, is considered one of history’s great generals, and the battle of Malplaquet was his last victory, and by far his largest and bloodiest. It was another feather in the cap of one of the greatest generals England ever produced.
Bibliography
G.A. Henty The Cornet of Horse: A Tale of Marlborough’s Wars
Sir Evelyn Wood British Battles on Land And Sea (London, New York, Toronto and Melbourne: Cassell and Company, Ltd. 1915) II
Archibald Wilberforce The Great Battles of All Nations (New York, New York: Peter Fenelon Collier & Son, 1899) I
Sir Archibald Alison The Military Life of John Duke of Marlborough (New York, New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers, 1848)
[1] G.A. Henty The Cornet of Horse: A Tale of Marlborough’s Wars
[2] Sir Evelyn Wood British Battles on Land And Sea (London, New York, Toronto and Melbourne: Cassell and Company, Ltd. 1915) II:740
[3] Sir Archibald Alison The Military Life of John Duke of Marlborough (New York, New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers, 1848) p. 233
[4] Archibald Wilberforce The Great Battles of All Nations (New York, New York: Peter Fenelon Collier & Son, 1899) I:417
[5] Sir Archibald Alison The Military Life of John Duke of Marlborough (New York, New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers, 1848) p. 233
[6] Archibald Wilberforce The Great Battles of All Nations (New York, New York: Peter Fenelon Collier & Son, 1899) I:418
[7] Ibid p. 419
[8] Sir Archibald Alison The Military Life of John Duke of Marlborough (New York, New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers, 1848) p. 236
[9] Ibid pp. 236-237
[10] Ibid pp. 237-238
[11] Archibald Wilberforce The Great Battles of All Nations (New York, New York: Peter Fenelon Collier & Son, 1899) I:423